What should be in an introduction?

What should be in a conclusion?

How do I know when to use an apostrophe?

How can I tell if my sentence is a fragment? How do I tell if it is a run-on?

How is a semicolon used?

What are the most important things to look for in writing?

What is the difference between . . .

I have trouble with organization. What strategies might help me?

What is plagiarism?

What is a dangling modifier?

Who is my audience, and why are they important?

What are ethos, logos, and pathos?

When do I start a new paragraph?

What is a thesis?

When do I use quotation marks? When do I paraphrase? When do I indent a quote?

What should be in an introduction?

Your introduction should have something to catch your reader's attention, a very brief summary of what you will be talking about in your paper, and your thesis statement (main idea). The introduction should orient your readers and create a context for the issues you are going to discuss.

What should be in a conclusion?

Your conclusion should bring the paper back to its thesis statement, re-stating the main idea. Leave the reader with a new, but related idea, for instance placing the issue in a larger context or relating it to other matters. Think of what you've proved or what the reader will get out of your argument.

How do I know when to use an apostrophe?

An apostrophe is used to show possession, that is, to show that something belongs to someone. It is also used to shorten words into contractions like I'm, you've, we're, etc. Since most people don't have trouble knowing where to put apostrophes in contractions, (although you should bear in mind that it is not correct to use contractions in formal writing) we will mostly discuss possession here. For example, "my mother's coat" is the coat that belongs to my mother. If only one person or thing is doing the owning, the apostrophe goes before the "s." If more than one thing is doing the owning, or if the word normally ends in "s," then the apostrophe goes after the "s." Here are a few examples:

Mary's book is on the table. 

• Mary is just one person, so the apostrophe goes before the "s."   

The students' hands were tired from writing. 

• Here we have more than one student whose hand was tired from writing. Therefore the apostrophe goes after the "s." 

One important thing to note is that you never need an apostrophe to just make something plural. You would say "there were many books," and not "many book's!"

How can I tell if my sentence is a fragment? How do I tell if it is a run-on?

Every sentence needs both a subject and a verb. If your sentence is missing one of these, it is a fragment. On the other hand, if you have more than one complete idea without a conjunction (and, but, for, nor) or a semicolon to separate the ideas, you have a run-on. Here are a few examples:

The black cat with white paws on the windowsill. 

• This is a very fine subject, but what did the cat do? We still need a verb, so this sentence is a fragment.  

Goes on happily down the winding road. 

• This has a very fine verb, but who or what is doing the action? We still need a noun, so this is a sentence fragment.  

Bill ran down the street "stop, thief" he cried. 

• We actually have two sentences here. Imagine putting a period after "street." We would still have two complete sentences, because these are two separate and complete thoughts. This sentence is a run-on.  

This is a good example, however, it is an incorrect sentence. 

• This one is a little trickier, because the word "however" can sometimes throw people off by making the run-on sound correct. See what would happen if you put a period after the word "example?" You would have two complete sentences! Thus, this sentence is a run-on. 

How is a semicolon used?

A semicolon can be a useful tool, if you use it correctly. It is used to connect complete ideas that are closely related. For example:

Jennifer looked at her books and sighed; there was a lot of work to be done.

What are the most important things to look for in writing?

1. Audience. It is important that the paper is well-suited for your audience. For example, you wouldn't want to write a really informal letter to President Spanier, and you also wouldn't write in a formal style to your best friend. In addition to your relationship with your audience, you will also want to think about how much they know about your topic. You won't need to explain as many terms to an expert in your field as you would to a group of high school students. Simply put, just keep in mind who you're talking to. 

3. Coherence. Are the paragraphs arranged in an order that follows logically from one to the other? Do you have smooth transition sentences between them? Are the ideas within each paragraph arranged in the best order? Are you relating each of your ideas to your overall thesis? 

4. Development. Are all your points fully explained and supported? You don't want to leave any statements "dangling" without evidence, support, or information to back them up. Also, if anything you said in your paper presumes certain things or is based on other information, you'll want to explain what background facts you're assuming and how you reached your conclusions. 

5. Clarity. Are your ideas expressed in a way that is easy to understand? If you have to read a sentence a few times to figure out what it means, you may want to rephrase it. Have you selected vocabulary which your audience will understand? 

. . .

Notice that grammar and mechanics, which are usually the first thing that people look for in their writing, are last on this list. It doesn't do you much good to have a paper with flawless grammar, punctuation and spelling if it is disorganized or doesn't stick to your main point. Therefore, we recommend the above order for critiquing writing effectively.

What is the difference between . . .

Its and It's?

It's (with an apostrophe) means "it is" or "it has," as in, "It's raining outside," or "It's been a long time." Note that "it's" with an apostrophe is a contraction, and thus should be avoided in formal writing. 

Its (without an apostrophe) shows possession, as in, "Its pages are bent."

There, their, and they're?

There signifies a place, as in "over there," or the fact that something exists, as in "Once upon a time there was a castle."

Their shows possession, that is, something which belongs to them. "Their house is on Oak Street." 

They're is a contraction which means "they are." A correct use of this would be "They're eating dinner."

Here is a sentence which uses all three correctly: "They're annoyed because their car is all the way over there."

Your and you're?

Your shows possession, indicating something which belongs to you. Example: Your hair is all messed up.

You're is a contraction meaning "you are." Example: You're getting on my nerves.

Lie and Lay?

Lie is something that you do to yourself. When you are tired, you lie down (not "lay down").

Lay is something that you do to other things. For example, you can lay a book on the table. Okay, here comes the slightly confusing part; are you ready? The confusing part is, "lay" is also the past tense of "lie." So, for example, you would say "This morning I lay down on the floor to stare at the ceiling." Since it is in the past, you use "lay."

Too and to?

Too indicates "excess," or "also." Here is an example of each.

Excess: There is too much food here to eat all at once.

As Well: I want to see the play too!

Effect and affect?

Effect is usually a noun, while affect is usually a verb. Here is an example of each:

The effect of the storm was clear; branches and broken trees were strewn everywhere.

Refusing to put verbs in your sentences will affect your grade on the paper.

I have trouble with organization. What strategies might help me?

Outlining before you write is a great way to keep all your ideas in order as you go along. By making an outline you can see how the structure of your paper will go before you have all the words down on paper. If you have already written your paper, a good way to check your organization is to make sure that each paragraph relates to your thesis, and that your ideas seem to flow smoothly and not jump wildly from one idea to the next. Most writers find it helpful to have someone else look at their paper to see if everything seems to flow smoothly and make sense. An outside pair of eyes can catch things that you might miss!

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism means using someone else's words or ideas as your own, without giving the original author credit for them. If you quote someone directly (for instance, from a book that you are using as a source), you MUST put it in quotation marks and give the author credit. Often it is better to paraphrase than to use lots and lots of quotes, but remember, if you use someone else's original idea, or data that the author has gathered, you must give that person credit for the idea that you used. For example, if you were doing a report on apples and you learned from a book that many apples are red, you would not have to cite that idea, because the author did not come up with the idea that apples are red. However, if you talk about a new apple-harvesting method that the author has invented, you must give them credit for their original idea, or for any data that the author gathered (that isn't common knowledge). Also, if you paraphrase a passage closely and don't credit the author, that is plagiarism!

The consequences of plagiarism are serious!!! It might not seem like a big deal to copy a little line or two out of a book, but in fact plagiarism is a serious crime, and if you are caught, the consequences can range from failing the class you wrote the paper for to getting kicked out of the university, fines, etc. Don't do it!

What is a dangling modifier?

When you start a sentence with a group of words that suggest but don't name an actor, the actor has to be named in the next group of words. If the actor is not named, then the modifier is a dangling one. This is easier to describe with an example

Having died before I was born, I never knew my uncle.

Though only sixteen years old, Penn State accepted Amy's application.

Who is my audience, and why are they important?

It is important to have a clear sense of who your audience is. Think about how differently you would write a letter of complaint to a professor than you would write a letter complaining about the same thing to your best friend. Suiting your writing to your audience is very important.

Sometimes your audience is decided for you. If you are sending a letter you know that the recipient is the audience. Often for classes you are writing for your professor's eyes only. However, sometimes professors ask you to choose a specific audience, for example your classmates, readers of a certain magazine or newspaper, a board of directors, your parents, or some other audience of your choice. In addition to thinking about how formal you should be, consider how much (or how little, as the case may be) the audience knows about your topic. Will they understand the terms you use? Do they need some background information to help them understand, or would adding this background just bore them with basics that they already know? Think about how much knowledge your audience has of your topic and what kind of tone you should take with them before you begin writing.

What are ethos, logos, and pathos?

Ethos, logos, and pathos are actually Greek words for ways in which we can appeal to (or persuade) an audience. Each one appeals to a different aspect of human nature. Especially in English 15, 30, and 202 many instructors stress ethos, logos, and pathos when analyzing writing or writing rhetorical analyses. Here is a description of each:

Ethos is anything that enhances the author's credibility and appeals to the moral values of the reader. The author is trying to get the reader to make a value judgment of some kind. It can also establish familiarity between the writer and the audience. One common use of ethos is to convince the reader that the writer has goodwill or is trying to be helpful. The ethos argument says "trust me!"

Pathos tries to engage the emotions of the audience. This type of appeal might try to make you feel sad, angry, happy, insecure, or any number of other emotions. The author is trying to get the reader to feel a certain way about the topic.

Logos is based on facts and reason. Mr. Spock from "Star Trek" would use this argument a lot. Statistics, history, and little-known facts are a few common aspects of logos. The author is trying to get the reader to see the perfect sense, or logic, of his or her argument.

When do I start a new paragraph?

Whenever you start a new idea you need to begin a new paragraph. If your paragraph is very long, you might want to look at it to see if it can be divided up into sub-ideas. Closely related ideas should stay together within the same paragraph.

What is a thesis?

The thesis of a paper is the main idea it is trying to get across. This will be whatever you happen to be arguing or trying to prove in your paper. Everything that you write in your paper should be relevant to the thesis. The thesis will be stated in your introduction and in your conclusion so that the reader is clear about what you are arguing.

When do I use quotation marks? When do I paraphrase? When do I indent a quote?

When you are using the exact words of another person (like the author of a book that you are using as a source for your paper), you must put it in quotation marks (see our answer about plagiarism above). If you don't want to use quotes, you may paraphrase what the author said. If you do this, please note the following conditions: (1) Paraphrasing does not mean changing the author's "and" to "furthermore" and calling it done. You should really try to put the whole quote into your own words, not just change a word here and there. (2) Paraphrasing does not exempt you from citing the source. If you got an idea from a book and used it in your paper, you must cite the source, thus giving the author credit for his or her ideas.

If a quote is four lines long or longer, you indent the whole thing rather than just putting it all in quotation marks. This makes it easier for the reader to see where the long quote begins and ends.