Focus on Research
Penn State Intercom......December 7, 2000

Rowdy, active todders just may be
sensation seekers, study reports

By Barbara Hale
Public Information

No, parents, you're not imagining it; some toddlers DO behave like miniature Evel Knievels. Researchers at University Park have identified "sensation seeking" characteristics in children as young as 2 years old and found that babies who are quicker to reach for and react to new toys and sounds were more likely to be highly positive, exploratory and risk-taking a year later as toddlers, too.

Cynthia Stifter, professor of human development and family studies, said, "Parents who are fortunate enouch to have a sensation-seeking child should revel in the fact that their offspring loves life but they also have to be mindful that the child may put him or herself in situations that are risky. Don't inhibit them but be watchful and do teach safety."

The findings were generated in dissertation research conducted by Sam Putnam, courtesy research associate, University of Oregon, when he was a doctoral candidate at Penn State under Stifter's direction. Putnam and Stifter presented their findings in a poster at the International Conference on Infant Studies in Brighton, England.

The researchers placed 90 children ranging in age from 6 months, 12 months, 24 months and 25 months in situations that tested for kid-style sensation-seeking characteristics. For example, while seated in a high chair, the 6-month-olds and 12-month-olds were shown two sets of toys. One set was of low intensity, a block, plate and cup, and the other of high intensity, a flashing light, toy beeper and a wind-up dragon. The children who reached out quickly for the toys were considered more "approach-motivated" than the children who went more slowly to these same toys.

At 2 years of age, the same children were given the opportunity to explore a black box with a hole in one side. The "low-approach" children generally refused to put their hand into the hole to explore the interior while some "high-approach" children actually tried to climb inside the box. The same children were also asked to approach a staircase with three steps and to jump off the steps onto a little mattress. High-approach children ran right up and jumped off the top step while some low-approach kids refused to leave their parent to go near the stairs.

In the study, Putnam says the researchers collected multiple behavioral variables that when grouped statistically showed "there appeared to be a distinction between those children who were approach-based and those who were more inhibition-based."

The researchers found four distinct forms of "sensation seeking" in the babies and toddlers that corresponded roughly to adult sensation-seeking behaviors, including thrill and adventure seeking, social disinhibition or the lack of shyness, and experience seeking. In addition, they found a dimension of positive affect or happiness.

Scientists discover evidence
of early microbial life on land

Remnants of organic matter in ancient soil more than 2.6 billion years old may be the earliest known evidence for terrestrial life, according to a team of astrobiologists.

"Our work shows that the organic matter in this soil very probably represents remnants of microbial mats that developed on the soil surface between 2.6 and 2.7 billion years ago," said Hiroshi Ohmoto, professor of geochemistry and director of The Penn State Astrobiology Center. "This places the development of terrestrial biomass more than 1.4 billion years earlier than previously reported."

Evidence that microorganisms flourished in the oceans since at least 3.8 billion years ago exists, but when these microorganisms colonized on land is not clear. The oldest undisputed remnants of terrestrial biomass have been 1.2 billion-year-old microfossils found in Arizona.

Examining samples taken from Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, using a variety of geochemical methods, the researchers report, that a paleosol dating to between 2.6 and 2.7 billion years ago contains organic carbon that was neither created by high temperature fluids nor is the remnant of later petroleum migration, but is in-situ biological in origin.

A paleosol is a layer of ancient soil, in this case buried and preserved where it formed.

Because the 55-foot thick layer of soil found at Schagen is located between a layer of 2.7 billion-year-old serpentine and a 2.6 billion-year-old quartzite bed, the researchers can date the soil to between 2.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.

The results of the study determined "these features suggest that the organic matter in the uppermost soil zone is an indigenous remnant of microbial mats that developed on the surface of clay-rich soil during the rainy season," Ohmoto said. "The mats were blanketed by aerosol deposits laid down during the dry season."

The researchers included Ohmoto; Yumiko Watanabe, doctoral candidate at Penn State and at Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; and Jacques E.J. Martini, Geological Survey of South Africa.

From the Experts

Plan for kids to be
home during holidays

The holiday season brings about a great deal of hustle and bustle -- the shopping, the traveling, the visiting, the decorating, baking, celebrations, parties, plays and crafts.

For many families the routine is even more stressed by the fact that the child-care center is closed, school is on hold and the kids are home.

"Accept that ' 'tis the season' and the family will be busier than usual, your children will be home all day and plan for it," said Linda Duerr, director of the Child Development Laboratory in Penn State's College of Health and Human Development.

* See the season through your children's eyes to gain their perspective, Duerr said. "Is all this running around really fun for your children? Three-year-old children tend not to like crowded department stores. Is a formal dinner really what your 4-year-old daughter wants to do and are you going to have fun if she joins you?"

* Be aware of your child's school or program requirements for the holiday break. Are they expected to write a book report or bring in a "show and tell" item on their return?

* "Children have a harder time adjusting to changes in sleep patterns than adults, so stick to the usual bedtime," Duerr said. "This affords the child needed rest and gives you the time to do the things you need to accomplish without them. It also maintains the normal schedule and that is the best preparation for going back to school and day care."

* Treat this time as a gift, rather than a nuisance, and do things together, Duerr noted. Most communities offer many activities for families during the holiday seasons.

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